John Milton opens his epic poem Paradise Lost with a bold declaration. He seeks to “justify the ways of God to men.” This was not merely a poetic flourish. Instead, it was a profound theological ambition. Milton tackled one of Christianity’s most difficult questions. If God is all-good and all-powerful, why does he permit evil and suffering? This question forms the heart of a theological concept known as theodicy.
Milton wrote during a time of immense religious and political turmoil in 17th-century England. Consequently, his attempt to explain God’s plan was both a personal and a public act. He used his poetic genius to build a comprehensive defense of divine providence, one that continues to challenge and inspire readers centuries later. Source
The Cornerstone of Defense: Free Will
Milton’s primary argument rests on the concept of free will. He presents a universe where intelligent beings, from the highest archangel to the newly created humans, possess genuine freedom. God does not compel their obedience. In heaven, God explains that he created angels and humans “free to stand, and free to fall.” This freedom is essential. Without it, love, faith, and obedience would be meaningless, mechanical actions. True virtue requires the ability to choose it over evil.
This is why Adam and Eve’s disobedience is so catastrophic. They were not puppets in a divine play. God gave them reason and a single, simple prohibition. He even sent the angel Raphael to warn them of Satan’s plot. However, they chose to disobey. Their fall, therefore, originates from their own choice, not from a flaw in God’s creation or a failure of his power. Milton carefully distinguishes between God’s foreknowledge and predestination. God knows what will happen, but he does not cause it to happen. Humanity, in Milton’s view, authors its own tragedy.
Balancing Justice with Mercy
After the fall, God’s justice must be served. The penalty for disobedience is death. Yet, Milton’s God is not merely a wrathful judge. The epic immediately introduces a plan for redemption. The Son of God offers himself as a sacrifice to pay humanity’s debt. This act is central to Milton’s justification. It demonstrates that God’s plan includes not only punishment for sin but also an overwhelming display of love and mercy.
This divine mercy transforms the nature of justice. It is no longer purely retributive. Instead, it becomes restorative. Through the Son’s sacrifice, humanity has a path back to grace. This solution allows God to remain perfectly just—sin is punished—while also being perfectly merciful. For Milton, this fusion of justice and mercy reveals the profound wisdom of the divine plan. It shows a God who is righteous but also deeply invested in the salvation of his creation. The fall, therefore, sets the stage for the ultimate demonstration of divine love.
The Fortunate Fall: A Greater Good
One of the most powerful concepts in Milton’s theodicy is the felix culpa, or “the fortunate fall.” This idea suggests that the fall of humanity, while a tragedy, ultimately resulted in a greater good. Before the fall, Adam and Eve lived in a state of simple, untested innocence. After the fall, humanity has the opportunity to achieve a more profound state of grace through redemption.
The archangel Michael reveals this to Adam in the final books of the epic. Adam sees a future filled with sin and suffering. However, he also sees the coming of Christ and the ultimate triumph of good. He learns that his sin allowed for the incarnation, an event that brings God and humanity closer than ever before. Upon understanding this, Adam declares that he is full of doubt that he should repent his sin, for it led to so much good. This transformation of despair into hope is Milton’s final move. It reframes the entire narrative of loss into one of ultimate victory and deeper communion with God.